A Beginners Guide to Statistics

A Beginners Guide to Statistics How many calories did each of us eat for breakfast? How far from home did everyone travel today? How big is the place that we call home? How many other people call it home? To make sense of all of this information, certain tools and ways of thinking are necessary. The mathematical science called statistics is what helps us to deal with this information overload. Statistics is the study of numerical information, called data. Statisticians acquire, organize, and analyze data. Each part of this process is also scrutinized. The techniques of statistics are applied to a multitude of other areas of knowledge. Below is an introduction to some of the main topics throughout statistics. Populations and Samples One of the recurring themes of statistics is that we are able to say something about a large group based on the study of a relatively small portion of that group. The group as a whole is known as the population. The portion of the group that we study is the sample. As an example of this, suppose we wanted to know the average height of people living in the United States. We could try to measure over 300 million people, but this would be infeasible. It would be a logistical nightmare conduct the measurements in such a way that no one was missed and no one was counted twice. Due to the impossible nature of measuring everyone in the United States, we could instead use statistics. Rather than finding the heights of everyone in the population, we take a statistical sample of a few thousand. If we have sampled the population correctly, then the average height of the sample will be very close to the average height of the population. Acquiring Data To draw good conclusions, we need good data to work with. The way that we sample a population to obtain this data should always be scrutinized. Which kind of sample we use depends on what question we’re asking about the population. The most commonly used samples are: Simple RandomStratifiedClustered It’s equally important to know how the measurement of the sample is conducted. To go back to the above example, how do we acquire the heights of those in our sample? Do we let people report their own height on a questionnaire?Do several researchers throughout the country measure different people and report their results?Does a single researcher measure everyone in the sample with the same tape measure? Each of these ways of obtaining the data has its advantages and drawbacks. Anyone using the data from this study would want to know how it was obtained. Organizing the Data Sometimes there is a multitude of data, and we can literally get lost in all of the details. It’s hard to see the forest for the trees. That’s why it’s important to keep our data well organized. Careful organization and graphical displays of the data help us to spot patterns and trends before we actually do any calculations. Since the way that we graphically present our data depends upon a variety of factors. Common graphs are: Pie charts or circle graphsBar or pareto graphsScatterplotsTime plotsStem and leaf plotsBox and whisker graphs In addition to these well-known graphs, there are others that are used in specialized situations. Descriptive Statistics One way to analyze data is called descriptive statistics. Here the goal is to calculate quantities that describe our data. Numbers called the mean, median and mode are all used to indicate the average or center of the data. The range and standard deviation are used to say how spread out the data is. More complicated techniques, such as correlation and regression describe data that is paired. Inferential Statistics When we begin with a sample and then try to infer something about the population, we are using inferential statistics. In working with this area of statistics, the topic of hypothesis testing arises. Here we see the scientific nature of the subject of statistics, as we state a hypothesis, then use statistical tools with our sample to determine the likelihood that we need to reject the hypothesis or not. This explanation is really just scratching the surface of this very useful part of statistics. Applications of Statistics It is no exaggeration to say that the tools of statistics are used by nearly every field of scientific research. Here are a few areas that rely heavily on statistics: PsychologyEconomicsMedicineAdvertisingDemography The Foundations of Statistics Although some think of statistics as a branch of mathematics, it is better to think of it as a discipline that is founded upon mathematics. Specifically, statistics is built up from the field of mathematics known as probability. Probability gives us a way to determine how likely an event is to occur. It also gives us a way to talk about randomness. This is key to statistics because the typical sample needs to be randomly selected from the population. Probability was first studied in the 1700s by mathematicians such as Pascal and Fermat. The 1700s also marked the beginning of statistics. Statistics continued to grow from its probability roots and really took off in the 1800s. Today, it’s theoretical scope continues to be enlarged in what is known as mathematical statistics.

Symbolism in the Dolls House Essays

Symbolism in the Dolls House Essays Symbolism in the Dolls House Paper Symbolism in the Dolls House Paper Essay Topic: A Dolls House Symbolism in The Doll’s House Katherine Mansfield’s The Doll’s House, clearly illustrates the symbolic journey of Kezia as she wanders in her childhood purity. The symbolic relationship that Kezia develops with the lamp in The Doll’s House, is critical to the development of the plot. In addition, the depiction of Kezia, provides a contrasting outlook on English hierarchy. To begin, the Burnell Children receive a doll’s house from Mrs. Hay. As the two eldest Burnell children take admiration to the red plush chairs and carpet, perfected indows, and golden pieces of the house, Kezia, the youngest, is mesmerized by the simplicity of the lamp. This is exemplified when Kezia thinks to herself, â€Å"But the lamp was perfect. It seemed to smile at Kezia, to say, â€Å"I live here†. The lamp was real† (Mansfield 119). Kezia’s enchantment of the lamp symbolizes her absence of adornment for materialistic items, opposed to her sisters. As the story progresses, Kezia continues to disapprove of the superficial parts of the doll’s house and cannot see why the others do not see the beauty of the lamp. This is clearly illustrated when Kezia ries out, â€Å"The lamps best of all†. She thought Isabel wasn’t making half enough of the little lamp. But nobody would pay attention† (Mansfield 121). Issues continue to occur with the others, due to Kezia’s indifferent ways. Once Kezia falls in love with the lamp, however, it is foreshadowing the events to come. Next, Kezia’s innocence leads her to make friends with the Kelvey’s, in whom from an economic standpoint, are ignored. Like the lamp, Kezia does not follow the normality of things around her in her English society. For instance, everywhere in town, They walked past the Kelvey’s with their heads in the air, and as they set the fashion in all matters of behaviour, the Kelvey’s were shunned by everybody† (Mansfield 120). Due to the class distinction of the Kelvey’s, Kezia is forbidden to speak to the Kelvey’s. However, Kezia does not follow the rest of her English society, and overlooks the appearance of the Kelvey’s and the rumors everyone says about them. It is evident that Kezia does not follow the others when she tells the Kelvey’s, â€Å"You can come and see our doll’s house if you want to† (Mansfield 122). By Kezia inviting the Kelvey girls to see he doll’s house, she visibly displays her kind-hearted simplistic character, that if she was to be an object, would be a simple lamp like the Kelvey’s. Therefore, despite everyone’s unjustified threats towards Kezia, she lets the simplicity of the lamp guide her to h ave a moral conscience in not excluding the Kelvey’s. Finally, the Kelvey’s are similar to Kezia, for they both notice the simplistic things in life and are not overly consumed by materialistic ones. Kezia senses the inner purity of the Kelvey’s and ultimately decides to invite them to see the doll’s house. Yet, hen the Kelvey’s have the chance to catch a mere glimpse of the doll’s house, they are quickly â€Å"shooed out as if they were chickens† (Mansfield 123) by Kezia’s Aunt Beryl. In spite of that, the Kelvey’s are still able to see the lamp, the most important object in the entire doll’s house. The Kelvey’s, like Kezia, see beauty in the most unembellished things in life. When Else, one of the Kelvey sister’s says, â€Å"I seen the little lamp† (Mansfield 123), the symbolism of the lamp is established. At this point, Mansfield successfully conveys the overall message of the hope against discrimination. Thus, this hope, symbolized through the lamp, is a connection that brings Kezia closer to the Kelvey’s, in realizing their similar views. In conclusion, the symbolism of the lamp, that stems from Kezia and leads to the Kelvey’s, distinctly shows the divide and constant battle between rich and poor. Materialism in our world also shows how perplex it is for many humans to surpass the ever-constant greed man has towards material items. Seeing past the obvious beauties in life is a complex obstacle to conquer in The Doll’s House, that only Kezia and the Kelvey’s are able to do. Both working together to fight this battle, therefore represent a lamp constantly searching for energy and hope to renew its light when it fades. In this case, the new light source was Kezia, who was seeking for an answer to help the Kelvey’s. Hence, the simplistic lamp represents the bonded connection that Kezia develops with the Kelvey’s, through the sightless faith of those around them, in the midst of their pure hearts. Mansfield, Katherine. The Broadview Anthology of Short Fiction: The Doll’s House. Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2004. Print.